McKenzie L. Johnston
The Oppression of Female Sex Workers in the United States
Women have historically been oppressed and discriminated against in the United States. From fighting for the right to vote, property rights, and rights within their marriages, it’s an ongoing battle that becomes more complicated when we look at particular types of women (Jackson, 2004). Female sex workers (FSW) have existed since the beginning of time and this paper seeks to analyze the past and current data related to the oppression of social workers and the current issue of violence against FSW. Sex work can be loosely defined as any exchange of sexual services for money or goods. (Weitzer, 2020) There will be mention of the many social issues FSW face, reflections on the consequences of discrimination, and discuss the organizations seeking to improve conditions for FSW in the United States.
History & Current Data
Sex work has a long history and dates back to the 18th century when prostitutes serviced men in brothels, and police tended to look the other way. When social service workers started to get involved in the mid-1800s, they were primarily Evangelical individuals who saw FSW as women who needed to be saved. They did not agree with sexual liberalism and thought of sex work as a form of slavery (Weitzer, 2020). In the 1900s, although social work was progressing and included individuals outside of the church, sex work was still seen as something that needed to be eliminated, and in 1910, the United States enacted the Mann Act, which made it a felony to transport women or girls for the purpose of becoming sex workers (Weitzer, 2020). Finally, in the 1960s and 1970s, sex work was considered a social justice issue, and society started to talk about sex work as a chosen profession. In 1973, organizations started to pop up across the U.S. that focused on the rights of sex workers, and it was considered part of their right to self-determination (Weitzer, 2020).
The reasons we as a society have gotten away from using the term prostitute are best explained by the Open Society Foundation as the following, “The term “sex worker” recognizes that sex work is work. Prostitution, on the other hand, has connotations of criminality and immorality. Many people who sell sexual services prefer the term “sex worker” and find “prostitute” demeaning and stigmatizing, which contributes to their exclusion from health, legal, and social services (Open Society Foundation, 2022). There are three types of violence that sex workers primarily suffer from: physical, psychological, and sexual (Jackson, 2004). Due to the nature of the laws in the United States related to sex work, there is little data out there that can accurately survey the number of FSWs, although Brittanica estimates the number to be about one million as of 2020. There is no indication of whether or not this number includes transgender females (Britannica, 2020). A transgender female refers to a person who was born male at birth and now identifies as a female (Lutnick & Cohan, 2009).
Social Issue
A social issue affecting sex workers right now is the question of whether or not sex work should be decriminalized. Some people debate that it will allow for safer circumstances, others say police could target sex workers in ways that would keep them just as marginalized as they are now (Lutnick & Cohan, 2009). A study involving FSW in San Francisco found that 71% of the sex workers participating in their study said that sex work should be decriminalized, and 91% wanted laws that protected sex work (Lutnick & Cohan, 2009). Decriminalization would allow FSW to report when a crime occurs, or they are faced with violence or another mistreatment. Due to the current laws criminalizing FSW, they are far less likely to report when they are the victim of a crime, or they may even be mistreated or extorted by law enforcement. (Lutnick & Cohan, 2009)
Systematic Oppression of Sex Workers
The first face of oppression that comes to mind when thinking of FSW is violence. Readings for diversity and social justice states that “The oppression of violence consists not only in direct victimization but in the daily knowledge shared by all members of oppressed groups that they are liable to the violation, solely on account of their group identity” (Page 58) FSW are faced with the risk of violence due to what some may call occupational hazard. A study on the rates of violence and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in FSW found there were “extremely high” rates of physical and sexual abuse, as well as PTSD symptoms (Park et al., 2021). They compared the rates of PTSD to those of war veterans (Park et al., 2021).
FSW face oppression on all levels, but the violence they face is systematic. Readings for diversity and social justice explain that Violence becomes systemic when it targets individuals that are part of a group just because they are a part of that group (Adams et al., 2013). FSW have to fear violence from not only their clients but also members of law enforcement and others involved in the judicial system. Lutnick & Cohan found that 14% of women had been threatened with arrest if they did not have sex with the police officer and 8% reported being arrested after having sex with a police officer (Lutnick & Cohan, 2009). Law enforcement is in a place of systematic power over sex workers and abusing their powers in order to degrade, use, and punish these women.
Activism
There are multiple organizations dedicated to increasing the rights of FSW and decriminalizing sex work. Decriminalizing Sex Work is an organization whose mission is to decriminalize sex work between consenting adults by working with different groups and organizations to de-stigmatize sex work in the general public to gain support for decriminalization (COYOTE, 2017). They collaborate with local sex work organizations to advocate for pro-sex work legislation.
Margot St. James founded Call COYOTE in San Francisco in 1973 after facing stigmatization and oppression as a sex worker herself (COYOTE, 2017). Currently, the Rhode Island chapter of COYOTE does education, outreach, and advocacy work in policies and legislation and promotes equitable rights for sex workers. They have worked with local police departments in sensitivity training and other consultations on cases involving sex work (COYOTE, 2017). Members also provide crisis support, housing assistance, and other social services to sex workers in their area (COYOTE, 2017).
Harmful Stereotypes
Stereotypes are a way for individuals and society to categorize behaviors or types of people by putting them in neat little boxes. Unfortunately, stereotypes do not capture the whole picture of who someone is, and this is particular for FSW (Adams, 2018). Sex work is often seen as not a “real” job, and it becomes a way for society to justify the marginalization of FSW. There are often two ways that sex workers are thought to get into the business, and a comparative study showed that the first side shows a myriad of traumatic experiences throughout the person’s early life, such as childhood sexual abuse, poverty, or neglect a parent (McCarthy & Jansson, 2014) The other side tends to point the finger at drug use, being an unhoused person, and other sources of exploitation such as trafficking and the control of pimps (McCarthy & Jansson, 2014). A pimp is someone who exercises control over a sex worker, often taking the majority or a large portion of the money they make from performing sex work in exchange for protection, and they can often be mentally or physically abusive (McCarthy & Jansson, 2014). Another line of thought emerging that FSW tend to say is that sex work is simply a job to them (McCarthy & Jansson, 2014). Engaging in sex work is not always a result of a broken childhood but rather just the inherent need to make money and pay bills like every other person in America. This results in a narrative that sex workers need to be saved, and religious groups certainly take advantage of that.
Another stereotype of FSW is that they are trafficked, doing this against their will, and need to be saved. This stereotype fueled the social work movement of the early 1900s. It wasn’t until 1973, when organizations like COYOTE, that sex work became recognized as a job that women chose (Weitzer, 2020). Contrary to popular belief, FSW and supportive organizations tend to disagree that sex work enforces the patriarchy and encourages men’s power over women (Jenness, 1990). Many FSW feel in control and empowered when they are able to charge men money for sex when other heterosexual women do it for free (Weitzer, 2020). This shows that sex work can be a source of power for women and a means of sexual liberation. While there does exist a number of women worldwide that are sadly trafficked into sex work, it is not the only narrative that exists. All women should be protected.
The Effect of the Patriarchy On Sex Workers
White supremacy culture harms everyone, especially women engaging in sex work. The system is set up to punish sex workers but rarely does a customer find themselves in legal trouble. This was shown in a case in 1994, where the “Hollywood Madam” of California, Heidi Fleiss, was prosecuted and jailed for running an underground, high-end sex work business. Heidi had many powerful and wealthy male clients whose names she kept in a book. Heidi was ultimately sentenced to seven years behind bars and served twenty months in a Dublin, CA prison, but not one of her clients was prosecuted (Zeller, 2020). This policing of sex workers and women-run escort services is a direct result of prejudice and discrimination. According to McElroy, prostitution laws have typically been made in a way that promotes the harassment of sex workers and negates or ignores the customers who seek these services. (McElroy, 1996). This pushes sex workers to the fringes of society, ensuring that if they are harmed while servicing a male client, they will be unlikely to report it. FSW are forced to operate their work in secret with worry they could be arrested and charged with a crime. McElroy furthered her point by stating that “laws against running a brothel…. Such laws effectively deny prostitutes the right to work indoors in a warm, safe, and clean place” (Page 131-132). This limits where FSW can work and ensures they will need to work in secrecy.
In order to raise awareness of the experiences of FSW, the issues they face need to be discussed in the mainstream media and television. We need movies, TV, and documentaries with FSW giving their testimony and examples of what their lives look like. If we can humanize and demystify sex work, we can show that at the end of the day, FSW are just women, and they deserve respect, safety, and equal access to resources. Women do this work for various reasons, but it should be acknowledged that sex work is work. Community events, outreach, and conversations about sex work should be conducted and normalized with non-sex workers to educate them. This education should be a collaboration with FSW.
FSW should be decriminalized and protected by the law. Some authors argue that attempts to criminalize sex work have negatively impacted sex workers and put them in increased danger (Weitzer, 2020). These laws cause increased stigmatization and don’t give FSW autonomy and infringe on their right to self-determination (Weitzer, 2020). Legalizing sex work would give FSW protections and eliminate the fear of being arrested for reporting when they are the victim of a crime while engaging in sex work. In a TED talk by Juno Mac, she powerfully sets the stage to present the issues sex workers currently face and how we can fix that. She states that sex workers want “full decriminalization and labor rights as workers” (Page 220). She praised the “New Zealand Prostitutes’ Collective” (Page 220), for listening to sex workers when writing the legislation8 that decriminalized sex work in New Zealand and made it a safer profession.
FSW endure higher rates of violence, PTSD, and discrimination than the rest of the population (Jackson, 2004). Social workers need to become allies and work on decriminalizing sex work and help to push through pro-sex work legislation. FSW are valuable, and the demand for sex work is not going anywhere. We can reject white supremacy, stereotypes, oppression, and create a new narrative about what it means to be a female sex worker in the United States.
References
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